September 2002 AGGMAN Geology

Geology in Early America

New oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor spreading: a. the spreading ridge about five million years ago; b. about two to three million years ago; and c. present day.

Author’s Note: For the past few years this column has taken on issues of concern to the aggregate industry and has described how geology relates to those issues. While most folks who read this column probably have some knowledge of geology, it is a science with a history worth sharing.

Some of the basic principles of geology were defined in Europe well before America had been discovered. Nevertheless, the discovery of the Americas led to some outstanding geologic reports. In fact, the discovery of the rest of the world outside of Europe fueled the geologic revolution.
Keep in mind that prior to the 18th century people commonly believed that rocks were formed during the Noachian Deluge. It was not until 1785 that Hutton communicated his concept of geologic time to the Royal Society of Edinburgh and 1815 that William Smith, the “Father of English Geology,” published his geologic map of England.
Early voyagers to America made reports about the geology of the continent, some of which were vague, partly erroneous, and partly preposterous. During 1555, Richard Eden brought together and translated a number of accounts of travels to the New World in his book “The Decades of the Newe Worlde…with particular description of the Moste ryche and large landes.”
Eden presented these earlier reports in a manner that reflected, or perhaps exaggerated, the richness of the New World, thus encouraging the support of expeditions to the Americas. The book regularly refers to the discovery of gold in the New World. Eden describes one “grayne [nugget] of golde of great weight” weighing 32 lbs. and stated that Native American men wore golden armor while the “principall women” wore brassiere of golden bars. It is no surprise then that early settlers, fired by these tales, expected to find gold and silver at every bend in the river. Imagine their dismay when they discovered the Native Americans of Virginia and New England wore no golden armor or golden clothing at all.
After settlement began, observers began producing more realistic descriptions of the geology of America. Thomas Hariot accompanied the 1585 expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Virginia (actually North Carolina) as historian, scientist, and advisor. Hariot mentioned several minerals including alum, iron, and copper, but also made note of the excellent and plentiful clay for brickmaking. John Brereton explored the New England coast in 1602, and was very impressed with the availability of building stone and clay.
During 1612, one of America’s most famous early settlers, Captain John Smith, published a book and map called “A Map of Virginia, with a description of the Countrey.” (For those of you who don’t know who John Smith was, ask your kids about Pocahontas.) Smith apparently did not have a good handle on the geology of the area because he concludes his summary of the natural history of Virginia with a paragraph on “The Rocks,” which begins, “Concerning the entrails of the earth little can be saide for certainty.”
But as time progressed the New Englanders such as William Wood (New Englands Prospect, 1634) and Thomas Morton (New English Canaan, 1637) did learn about the entrails of the earth and described practical resources such as stones for building, slate for roofs, clay for brick, whetstones for sharpening tools, and lime for mortar and plaster; minerals that may not have made them rich, but certainly helped make them comfortable.
Early Americans also made their contributions to the advancement of the geological sciences. John Clayton (circa 1693) described a variety of fossils and said that the shells may be remains of animals, but to avoid being too heretical, he said they may also be “figured stones” created by some quirk of nature.
More than 40 papers on natural history of the Americas were written during the first half of the 18th century. One of the most eminent names of that time was Lewis Evans, a Welch-born cartographer, who spent his entire career in America. He was one of the first American geologists to develop his own geological view, not being under the influence of European geologists. Therefore his work was of vital importance for other geologists of the time. Evans published papers on the region between Philadelphia and Lake Ontario (1743) and on the Appalachian Mountains (1749 and 1752), known at that time as the Endless Mountains. Evans traveled widely and carefully recorded his observations in a journal. He noted correctly the linear character of the Appalachian ridges and that fossil shells are the remains of marine organisms. Of significant importance, Lewis noted that the Great Lakes were once of much greater extent than at present, and that after draining to their present extent, the removal of the weight of the water on the earth’s crust resulted in uplift of the land.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), esteemed American scientist and one of America’s founding fathers, published maps of the newly founded United States. Because he spent so much time sailing across the Atlantic Ocean, Franklin became very interested in both ocean currents and shipbuilding. He took measurements of the water temperature during each of his eight transatlantic voyages and was one of the first people able to chart the Gulf Stream in detail.
Franklin was not the only founding father with an interest in science. Next month this column will describe how Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), another of America’s founding fathers and third president of the United States, contributed to the advancement of paleontology in the United States.

William H. Langer is a geologist with the Mineral Resources Team of the U.S. Geological Survey.

September 2002 Carved in Stone Geology in Early America				Geology in Early America By Bill Langer New oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor spreading: a. the spreading ridge about five million years ago; b. about two to three million years ago; and c. present day. Author’s Note: For the past few years this column has taken on issues of concern to the aggregate industry and has described how geology relates to those issues. While most folks who read this column probably have some knowledge of geology, it is a science with a history worth sharing. Some of the basic principles of geology were defined in Europe well before America had been discovered. Nevertheless, the discovery of the Americas led to some outstanding geologic reports. In fact, the discovery of the rest of the world outside of Europe fueled the geologic revolution. Keep in mind that prior to the 18th century people commonly believed that rocks were formed during the Noachian Deluge. It was not until 1785 that Hutton communicated his concept of geologic time to the Royal Society of Edinburgh and 1815 that William Smith, the “Father of English Geology,” published his geologic map of England. Early voyagers to America made reports about the geology of the continent, some of which were vague, partly erroneous, and partly preposterous. During 1555, Richard Eden brought together and translated a number of accounts of travels to the New World in his book “The Decades of the Newe Worlde…with particular description of the Moste ryche and large landes.” Eden presented these earlier reports in a manner that reflected, or perhaps exaggerated, the richness of the New World, thus encouraging the support of expeditions to the Americas. The book regularly refers to the discovery of gold in the New World. Eden describes one “grayne [nugget] of golde of great weight” weighing 32 lbs. and stated that Native American men wore golden armor while the “principall women” wore brassiere of golden bars. It is no surprise then that early settlers, fired by these tales, expected to find gold and silver at every bend in the river. Imagine their dismay when they discovered the Native Americans of Virginia and New England wore no golden armor or golden clothing at all. After settlement began, observers began producing more realistic descriptions of the geology of America. Thomas Hariot accompanied the 1585 expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Virginia (actually North Carolina) as historian, scientist, and advisor. Hariot mentioned several minerals including alum, iron, and copper, but also made note of the excellent and plentiful clay for brickmaking. John Brereton explored the New England coast in 1602, and was very impressed with the availability of building stone and clay. During 1612, one of America’s most famous early settlers, Captain John Smith, published a book and map called “A Map of Virginia, with a description of the Countrey.” (For those of you who don’t know who John Smith was, ask your kids about Pocahontas.) Smith apparently did not have a good handle on the geology of the area because he concludes his summary of the natural history of Virginia with a paragraph on “The Rocks,” which begins, “Concerning the entrails of the earth little can be saide for certainty.” But as time progressed the New Englanders such as William Wood (New Englands Prospect, 1634) and Thomas Morton (New English Canaan, 1637) did learn about the entrails of the earth and described practical resources such as stones for building, slate for roofs, clay for brick, whetstones for sharpening tools, and lime for mortar and plaster; minerals that may not have made them rich, but certainly helped make them comfortable. Early Americans also made their contributions to the advancement of the geological sciences. John Clayton (circa 1693) described a variety of fossils and said that the shells may be remains of animals, but to avoid being too heretical, he said they may also be “figured stones” created by some quirk of nature. More than 40 papers on natural history of the Americas were written during the first half of the 18th century. One of the most eminent names of that time was Lewis Evans, a Welch-born cartographer, who spent his entire career in America. He was one of the first American geologists to develop his own geological view, not being under the influence of European geologists. Therefore his work was of vital importance for other geologists of the time. Evans published papers on the region between Philadelphia and Lake Ontario (1743) and on the Appalachian Mountains (1749 and 1752), known at that time as the Endless Mountains. Evans traveled widely and carefully recorded his observations in a journal. He noted correctly the linear character of the Appalachian ridges and that fossil shells are the remains of marine organisms. Of significant importance, Lewis noted that the Great Lakes were once of much greater extent than at present, and that after draining to their present extent, the removal of the weight of the water on the earth’s crust resulted in uplift of the land. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), esteemed American scientist and one of America’s founding fathers, published maps of the newly founded United States. Because he spent so much time sailing across the Atlantic Ocean, Franklin became very interested in both ocean currents and shipbuilding. He took measurements of the water temperature during each of his eight transatlantic voyages and was one of the first people able to chart the Gulf Stream in detail. Franklin was not the only founding father with an interest in science. Next month this column will describe how Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), another of America’s founding fathers and third president of the United States, contributed to the advancement of paleontology in the United States. William H. Langer is a geologist with the Mineral Resources Team of the U.S. Geological Survey.